Free Essays on Erick Ericksom

Erikson, Erik (1902-1979) German-born American psychoanalyst best known for his work with children and adolescents. Erik Erikson was born in Frankfurt, Germany, to Danish parents. As a youth, he was a student and teacher of art. While teaching at a private school in Vienna, he became acquainted with Anna Freud, the daughter of Sigmund Freud. Erikson underwent psychoanalysis, and the experience made him decide to become an analyst himself. He was trained in psychoanalysis at the Vienna Psychoanalytic Institute and also studied the Montessori method of education, which focused on child development. Following Erikson's graduation from the Vienna Psychoanalytic Institute in 1933, the Nazis had just come to power in Germany, and he emigrated with his wife, first to Denmark and then to the United States, where he became the first child psychoanalyst in Boston. Erikson held positions at Massachusetts General Hospital, the Judge Baker Guidance Center, and at Harvard's Medical School and Psychological Clinic, establishing a solid reputation as an outstanding clinician. In 1936, Erikson accepted a position at Yale University, where he worked at the Institute of Human Relations and taught at the Medical School. After spending a year observing children on a Sioux reservation in South Dakota, he joined the faculty of the University of California at Berkeley, where he was affiliated with the Institute of Child Welfare, and opened a private practice as well. While in California, Erikson also studied children of the Yurok Native American tribe. After publishing the book for which he is best known, Childhood and Society, in 1950, he left Berkeley to join the staff of the Austen Riggs Center, a prominent psychiatric treatment facility in Stockbridge, Massachusetts, where he worked with emotionally troubled young people. In the 1960s, Erikson returned to Harvard as a professor of human development and remained at the university until his retirement in 1... Free Essays on Erick Ericksom Free Essays on Erick Ericksom Erikson, Erik (1902-1979) German-born American psychoanalyst best known for his work with children and adolescents. Erik Erikson was born in Frankfurt, Germany, to Danish parents. As a youth, he was a student and teacher of art. While teaching at a private school in Vienna, he became acquainted with Anna Freud, the daughter of Sigmund Freud. Erikson underwent psychoanalysis, and the experience made him decide to become an analyst himself. He was trained in psychoanalysis at the Vienna Psychoanalytic Institute and also studied the Montessori method of education, which focused on child development. Following Erikson's graduation from the Vienna Psychoanalytic Institute in 1933, the Nazis had just come to power in Germany, and he emigrated with his wife, first to Denmark and then to the United States, where he became the first child psychoanalyst in Boston. Erikson held positions at Massachusetts General Hospital, the Judge Baker Guidance Center, and at Harvard's Medical School and Psychological Clinic, establishing a solid reputation as an outstanding clinician. In 1936, Erikson accepted a position at Yale University, where he worked at the Institute of Human Relations and taught at the Medical School. After spending a year observing children on a Sioux reservation in South Dakota, he joined the faculty of the University of California at Berkeley, where he was affiliated with the Institute of Child Welfare, and opened a private practice as well. While in California, Erikson also studied children of the Yurok Native American tribe. After publishing the book for which he is best known, Childhood and Society, in 1950, he left Berkeley to join the staff of the Austen Riggs Center, a prominent psychiatric treatment facility in Stockbridge, Massachusetts, where he worked with emotionally troubled young people. In the 1960s, Erikson returned to Harvard as a professor of human development and remained at the university until his retirement in 1...

Definition of Heterogeneous Mixture With Examples

Definition of Heterogeneous Mixture With Examples A heterogeneous mixture is a mixture having a non-uniform composition. The composition varies from one region to another, with at least two phases that remain separate from each other, with clearly identifiable properties. If you examine a sample of a heterogeneous mixture, you can see the separate components. In physical chemistry and materials science, the definition of a heterogeneous mixture is somewhat different. Here, a homogeneous mixture is one in which all components are in a single phase, while a heterogeneous mixture contains components in different phases. Examples of Heterogeneous Mixtures Concrete is a heterogeneous mixture of an aggregate, cement,  and water.Sugar and sand form a heterogeneous mixture. If you look closely, you can identify tiny sugar crystals and particles of sand.Ice cubes in cola form a heterogeneous mixture. The ice and the soda are two distinct phases of matter (solid and liquid).  Salt and pepper form a heterogeneous mixture.Chocolate chip cookies are a heterogeneous mixture. If you take a bite from a cookie, you may not get the same number of chips as you get in another bite.Soda is considered a heterogeneous mixture. It contains water, sugar, and carbon dioxide, which forms bubbles. While the sugar, water, and flavorings may form a chemical solution, the carbon dioxide bubbles are not uniformly distributed throughout the liquid. Homogeneous vs. Heterogeneous Mixtures In a homogeneous mixture, the components are present in the same proportion, no matter where you take a sample. In contrast, samples taken from different parts of a heterogeneous mixture may contain different proportions of components. For example, if you take a handful of candy from a bag of green MMs, every candy you pick will be green. If you take another handful, once again all the candies will be green. That bag contains a homogeneous mixture. If you take a handful of candy from a regular bag of MMs, the proportion of colors you take might be different from what you get if you take a second handful. This is a heterogeneous mixture. However, most of the time, whether a mixture is heterogeneous or homogeneous depends on the scale of the sample. Using the candy example, while you may get a different sample of candy colors comparing handfuls from a single bag, the mixture may be homogeneous if you compare all the colors of candies from one bag to all the candies from another bag. If you compare the ratio of colors from 50 bags of candy to another 50 bags of candy, chances are good there will be no statistical difference between the ratio of colors. In chemistry, it is the same. On the macroscopic scale, a mixture may appear homogeneous, yet become heterogeneous as you compare the composition of smaller and smaller samples. Homogenization A heterogeneous mixture can be made into a homogeneous mixture via a process called homogenization. An example of homogenization is homogenized milk, which has been processed so that the milk components are stable and dont separate. In contrast, natural milk, while it might appear homogeneous when shaken, isnt stable and readily separates into different layers.

Data Security Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Data Security - Essay Example In case, the server is online, it transmits that signal straight back to the computer, letting us enjoy secure communications. Both the computer and the server send out heartbeats during regular intervals to ensure that both the user and the server i.e. the service aren’t offline (Kerner 2014). Heartbleed exploits this â€Å"heartbeat† by sending out, a kind of heartbeat signal to servers that is malicious in nature. That malicious heartbeat more or less tricks the server into sending a random amount of its memory to the user who sent the malicious heartbeat. A random collection of email addresses, usernames and passwords can be enclosed in that memory. Some of those records troublingly, could belong to the company running that server. This affords hackers with a method of infiltrating and exploiting information across the Internet. The Shellshock issue is a sample of ACE (arbitrary code execution) vulnerability. Classically, ACE vulnerability attacks are carried out on running programs and entail an extremely advanced understanding of the internals of assembly language, code execution and memory layout—the kind of attack that calls for an expert, to be concise (Sampathkumar, Balasubramani 2014). The attacker employed an ACE vulnerability to run a program granting them an easy way of dominating the targeted machine. This is accomplished by means of running a "shell". A shell is a command-line where commands can be executed or entered. The Shellshock vulnerability is a big concern since it eliminates the necessity for specialized knowledge and in turn offers a simple (unfortunately, very basic) means of taking control of another computer or even a web server to make it run code. The attack seemingly looked to have been triggered by a malicious computer code referred to as malware, according to people familiar with such matters. Some people suggested, a probable Russian or

TECHNICAL REPORT & LOG BOOK Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

TECHNICAL REPORT & LOG BOOK - Essay Example To understanding the working of a major part of the industry a small contractor company is selected as a study sample. 2. Alpha Construction Ltd There are mainly two reasons for selecting Alpha Construction, which makes it’s an important representative example of an organization which fits into construction industry. Firstly alpha construction is an ideal example for a SME, Civil Engineering and Building Contractor whose range of contracts value from ?250k to ?5m. Secondly it is a company which is in Hilton Derbyshire which would help us understand the working of contractors in the midlands. The Alpha construction deals in a wide range of works that include building and civil engineering aspects of electricity generation and distribution, food processing, water, quarrying, chemical processing, infrastructure works, manufacturing and coal production projects. The company’s management includes Rob Smith as Managing Director, and Mark Clarke, Melanie Cartlidge, Ken Durham as Commercial Director, Business development Manager and Contracts Director respectively. It is observed that management have very less experience in Environment and related issues and that’s where the issue exists in the small construction enterprises. As we are very well aware that now the environmental aspect of each project is critically scrutinized at every stage of the project (Design, construction and operations) and if the project does not conform to the standards and regulations heavy penalty or even the closure of the project can occur. So now with the changing time we have to make a slight change in the structure of the company. After an analysis I have come to a conclusion that the existence of Environmental Management Unit is the need of the hour. 3. Environmental Management Unit The structure of this unit would be a small, so as to match the size of the company, it would include an expert in Environmental sciences/engineering and must have experience in analysis and management of environmental issues related to diverse construction projects. The experts will work under the Business development Manager and Contracts Director collectively. In the status quo it is very important that there must be no issues raised related to environment in contracts, because it would harm the companies profile making it difficult to get new projects in the current recession. Secondly a certain level of leverage can be acquired from the introduction of Environmental Management Unit, this is because increased awareness of the client for protection and safeguard of environment and can be at times detrimental in the selection of contractors for civil engineering project that Alpha construction normally does. The main purpose and technical areas of expertise of this unit would be introduce the usage of new green materials of construction and then provide sustainable construction processes and pathways. Bringing in new green construction material is important due t o two reasons, firstly an immense amount of construction material is used, it is estimated that about 420 million tones of material is used in construction industry in UK every year (Lazarus, Construction Materials Report 2003). Then secondly it is an area in which very

Commercialization of Education Essay Example for Free

Commercialization of Education Essay Bacteria, Virus, and Parasites Years ago, waterborne diseases accounted for millions of deaths. Even today in underdeveloped countries, an estimated 25,000 people will die daily from waterborne disease. Effects of waterborne microorganisms can be immediate and devastating. Therefore, microorganisms are the first and most important consideration in making water acceptable for human consumption. Generally speaking, modern municipal supplies are relatively free from harmful organisms because of routine disinfection with chlorine or chloramines and frequent sampling. This does not mean municipal water is free of all bacteria. Those of us with private wells and small rural water systems have reason to be more concerned about the possibility of microorganism contamination from septic tanks, animal wastes, and other problems. There is a little community in California, where 4,000,000 gallons of urine hits the ground daily from dairy cows! Authorities say that at least 4000 cases of waterborne diseases are reported every year in the U.S. They also estimate that much of the temporary ills and everyday gastrointestinal disorders that go routinely unreported can be attributed to organisms found in our water supplies. INORGANIC IMPURITIES: Dirt and Sediment or Turbidity Most waters contain some suspended particles which may consist of fine sand, clay, soil, and precipitated salts. Turbidity is unpleasant to look at, can be a source of food and lodging for bacteria, and can interfere with effective disinfection. Total Dissolved Solids These substances are dissolved rock and other compounds from the earth. The entire list of them could fill this page. The presence and amount of total dissolved solids in water represents a point of controversy among those who promote water treatment products. Here are some facts about the consequences of higher levels of TDS in water: 1. High TDS results in undesirable taste which could be salty, bitter, or metallic. 2. High TDS water is less thirst quenching. 3. Some of the individual mineral salts that make up TDS pose a variety of health hazards. The most problematic are Nitrates, Sodium, Sulphates, Barium, Copper, and Fluoride. 4. The EPA Secondary Regulations advise a maximum level of 500mg/litter (500 parts per million-ppm) for TDS. Numerous water supplies exceed this level. When TDS levels exceed 1000mg/L it is generally considered unfit for human consumption. 5. High TDS interferes with the taste of foods and beverages, and makes them less desirable to consume. 6. High TDS make ice cubes cloudy, softer, and faster melting. 7. Minerals exist in water mostly as INORGANIC salts. In contrast, minerals having passed through a living system are known as ORGANIC minerals. They are combined with proteins and sugars. According to many nutritionists minerals are much easier to assimilate when they come from foods. Can you imagine going out to your garden for a cup of dirt to eat rather than a nice carrot; or drinking a whole bathtub of water for LESS calcium than that in an 8 ounce glass of milk? 8. Water with higher TDS is considered by some health advocates to have a poorer cleansing effect in the body than water with a low level of TDS. This is because water with low dissolved solids has a greater capacity of absorption than water with higher solids. Toxic Metals or Heavy Metals Among the greatest threats to health are the presence of high levels of toxic metals in drinking water Arsenic, Cadmium, Lead, Mercury, and Silver. Maximum limits for each are established by the EPA Primary Drinking Water Regulations. Other metals such as Chromium and Selenium, while essential trace elements in our diets, have limits imposed upon them when in water because the form in which they exist may pose a health hazard. Toxic metals are associated with nerve damage, birth defects, mental retardation, certain cancers, and increased susceptibility to disease. Asbestos Asbestos exists as microscopic suspended mineral fibres in water. Its primary source is asbestos-cement pipe which was commonly used after World War II for city water supplies. It has been estimated that some 200,000 miles of this pipe is presently in use to transport our drinking water. Because these pipes are wearing, the deadly substance of asbestos is showing up with increasing frequency in drinking water. It has been linked with gastrointestinal cancer. Radioactivity Even though trace amounts of radioactive elements can be found in almost all drinking water, levels that pose serious health hazards are fairly rarefor now. Radioactive wastes leach from mining operations into groundwater supplies. The greatest threat is posed by nuclear accidents, nuclear processing plants, and radioactive waste disposal sites. As containers containing these wastes deteriorate with time, the risk of contaminating our aquifers’ grows into a toxic time bomb. ORGANIC IMPURITIES: Tastes and Odours If your water has a disagreeable taste or odour, chances are it is due to one or more of many organic substances ranging from decaying vegetation to algae; hydrocarbons to phenols. It could also be TDS and a host of other items. Pesticides and Herbicides The increasing use of pesticides and herbicides in agriculture shows up in the water we drink. Rain and irrigation carry these deadly chemicals down into the groundwater as well as into surface waters There are more than 100,000,000 people in the US who depend upon groundwater for sources whole or in part of their drinking water. As our reliance upon groundwater is escalating, so is its contamination. Our own household use of herbicide and pesticide substances also contributes to actual contamination. These chemicals can cause circulatory, respiratory and nerve disorders. Toxic Organic Chemicals The most pressing and widespread water contamination problem is a result of the organic chemicals created by industry. The American Chemical Society lists 4,039,907 distinct chemical compounds as of late 1977! This list only is comprised of chemicals reported since 1965. The list can grow by some 6,000 chemicals per week! 70,000 chemicals may still be in production in the US. As of December, 1978, 50 chemicals were being produced in greater quantities than 1,300,000,000 pounds per year in the US. 115,000 establishments are involved in the production and distribution of chemicals, with the business being worth $113,000,000,000 per year. According to the EPA, there are 77,000,000,000 pounds of hazardous waste being generated each year in the US. 90 percent of this is not disposed of properly. This would equal 19,192 pounds of hazardous waste disposed each year on every square mile of land and water surface in the US including Alaska and Hawaii!! There are 181,000 manmade lagoons at industrial and municipal sites in the US. At least 75 percent of these are unlined. Even the lined ones will leak according to the EPA. Some of these are within 1 mile of wells or water supplies. There is still a lack of information on the location of these sites, their condition, and containments. THIS IS A HORROR STORY OF THE MILLENNIUM. Chemicals end up in our drinking water from hundreds of different sources. There are hundreds of publications each year highlighting this problem. The effects of chronic long term exposure to these toxic organics, even in minute amounts, are extremely difficult to detect. Contaminated drinking water may look and taste perfectly normal. The users’ symptoms might include recurring headache, rash, or fatigue all of which are hard to diagnose as being water related. The more serious consequences of drinking tainted water are higher cancer rates, birth defects, growth abnormalities, infertility, and nerve and organ damage. Some of these disorders may go unnoticed for decades!! Just how toxic these chemicals are may be illustrated by looking at two examples: TCE is a widely used chemical which routinely shows up in water supplies. Just two glassfuls of TCE can contaminate 27,000,000 gallons of drinking water! One pound of the pesticide, Endrin can contaminate 5,000,000,000 gallons of water. Chlorine Trihalomethanes (THMs) are formed when chlorine, used to disinfect water supplies, interacts with natural organic materials (e.g. by-products of decayed vegetation, algae, etc.). This creates toxic organic chemicals such as chloroform, and Bromodichloromethane. A further word about chlorine: Scientists at Colombia University found that women who drank chlorinated water ran a 44% greater risk of dying of cancer of the gastrointestinal or urinary tract than did women who drank non-chlorinated water! Chlorinated water has also been linked to high blood pressure and anaemia. Anaemia is caused by the deleterious effect of chlorine on red blood cells.

China and Free Trade :: essays research papers

China and Free Trade In the International Business class, free trade has been the cornerstone for economic prosperity. But sometimes free trade can flood the market with cheaper products, causing financial problems for companies in this country. Often, the U.S. government will set up a tariff to help the American companies. But is this the best solution? This is the topic of the article, Bush’s China-Trade Dilemma by Neil King, Jr. published November 14, 2002 in â€Å"The Wall Street Journal.†   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Since China joined the World Trade Organization last year, it has become the third largest supplier of goods and services imported to the United States. Many U.S. companies are complaining that China is selling the items below cost and want Congress to impose duties. They accuse China of breaking the free-trade agreement that it made when it joined the WTO. Trade expert, Gary Hufbauer, says, â€Å"It is just a matter of time before we have a repeat of the Japan trade battles, but this time with China.†   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  But many in Washington believe that if the U.S. files a grievance against China with the WTO, other countries will follow and the WTO system will become overwhelmed with complaints against China. As one U.S. official stated, â€Å"I’m not sure anyone wants to be the first in line to whack China at the WTO.† Overall, China has a good free trade record and is really making an effort to join in the world economy. But China’s success has hurt some U.S. companies and talk of protectionism has started in the U.S. So what does Bush do? The administration praises free trade, but is seriously considering implementing tariffs for protection on certain items. Is this a contradiction? There is another complication that needs to be addressed. Many of the companies that manufacture in China are really American owned, such as Motorola Inc. How will this affect what does the Bush administration will do? Most of China’s companies are backed by foreign investors. China is eliminating trade barriers, cutting import tariffs, and relaxing restrictions on trading licenses.

American history Essay

In American history, there have been numerous instances in which a greater degree of damage and death which visited out shores. In the three day battle of Gettysburg, more than 51,000 soldiers fell. (Burns, 1989) The invasion of France on June 6, 1944 took more than 6,000 lives. Pearly Harbor claimed more than 2300 lives and introduced Americans to a war that would take more than 400,000 lives. However, the events which transpired on September 11, 2001 will always serve as one of the defining moments for those who lived through it. As with the assassin ion of John F. Kennedy was to our parents’ generation, September 11, 2001 will be for our generation. The news is filled with a multitude of calamities. The Asian tsunami in December of 2004 which claimed 200,000 lives or any number of events which take a toll on the human population, due to the fact that the evening news is saturated with events which should horror us but which really don’t as we have become apathetic against its stimulus, there are sometimes, national tragedies which affect the average American in ways that are hard to explain and fathom for those who are on the outside and looking in. This was the case for Natasha Jackson; a 27 year old African American female who lost two family members on September 11. For her, the day is more than just a time to rally behind the troops and to take time out of one’s day to remember those who died. For Natasha Jackson, 9/11 does not stop but continues 365 days a year. Natasha Jackson grew up in the suburbs of Chicago. Her father was a police chief in DuPage County Illinois. Natasha was in college while the events of September 11 were transpiring. At the end of her 8am class, which ended at 9:15, and upon walking to her next class, she was overheard some talk about a major news event. She did not realize exactly what had happened until the professor in her next class, told her and the rest of the class what had happened. All of the details would not be known until months and years later. However, by the time the second plane hit the tower, it had become obvious that this was no accident. We had hoped that all of the more than 50,000 people, who, on a daily basis, worked in the Twin Towers, would have been able to vacate the building while it was still standing. This was not the case for nearly 3,000 people who perished when the towers fell. (Burns, 2003) Since I had not known anybody in New York or who were on those planes that were hijacked, I was glad that as for me, the event did not take any of my loved ones. However, I knew that was not the case for thousands of families across the country. America was now at war to defeat terrorism and this would take an additional four thousands American lives to date with more casualties being reported daily. I did not know that the events of September 11 would affect somebody so close to me as I would eventually find out to be the case. Towards the end of September, 2001, as clean up crews were still busy picking up the twisted metal from the site of Ground Zero and plans for a strike against Iraq were being discussed, I learned that two of Natasha’s relatives, were not only affected by 9/11, but were actually killed when the first tower fell. It was something that was hard to realize had hit so close to home even when it was not my relatives that had been affected. More than six years later, Natasha sat down to talk to me about the events of that day and what she felt then as well as now. Natasha commented: â€Å"That day is one that I will never forget for as long as I live. † I was horrified by what I saw on television. However, my reaction was one filled with a bit more panic than my classmates who were watching the same thing as I was. I knew that my aunt, Marilyn Jackson worked in Tower One at Canter Fitzgerald. I would later find out that nearly 800 employees of that firm would die on September 11. (Burns, 2003) † When asked exactly what her initial reaction was, Natasha still finds it difficult to accurately explain what she was feeling. â€Å"I though that I was seeing a movie and that the events in New York was an examples of special effects or something. I really didn’t know what to think. I sat transfixed at what I was seeing and I didn’t get around to calling my father until a couple hours after the towers fell. I just didn’t know how to react. † In the immediate hours after the first tower fell, I actually ran into Natasha. We were not our jovial self for obvious reasons but I assumed that it was due to the events in New York, Pennsylvania and at the Pentagon earlier that day. I did not think to ask Natasha if she had known anybody who was killed that day. I knew that she had always had a love affair with New York and hoped to complete her Master’s Degree at New York University one day. I did not know that she had two relatives who lived there in the city. Natasha then explained what her immediate actions were in the hours following the destruction of the first tower and then the second. â€Å"I called my father to ask him the whereabouts of my aunt. He said that he didn’t know and that he would not know for some time. Not only was the event very chaotic, but the fact that he was a police chief in a Chicago suburb, his force went on high alert as there was rumors that The Sears Tower might be targeted. People didn’t know what to think. Everything was a mess. I was a mess as well. I pride myself on being a rational and independent person. I never get anxious but am rather calm and have a strong demeanor. That day, I was not able to contain my composure which only compounded my feelings of anxiety as I did not know how to gather my thoughts. † Natasha then comments on the time when she heard that her aunt was missing and then, a few days later, believed to be dead. â€Å"The next few days, nobody knew where my aunt or many of the other were. I waited by my phone and could not go to class. I tried to separate myself from the various news accounts as there was no shortage of coverage on television. I tried to go for a walk or to go and work out. My attempts did not come to fruition and it only served as a momentary respite from the inner pain and confusion that I was feeling. Eight days later, I received a call from my father who told me that my aunt was probably dead and the possibility of there being any survivors of the attack from those who were in the towers at the time it fell, was very unlikely. The country would later learn that there would not be a single survivor from the fall of the Twin Towers. It seemed unlikely, even before being told that was the case, that anybody could survive that. I still held out hope until I received that call. † The terror that Natasha would feel, would not be confined to only the loss of her aunt, who alone, would be more than anybody could really fathom. What served as a source of added stress, not only was Natasha’s aunt murdered on 9/11, but so too was her uncle. The aunt was from her father’s side and her uncle came from her mother’s side. Gerald Smith was a firefighter and one of the 343 New York City firefighters who died trying to save others in the Twin Towers. (Burns, 2003) â€Å"It is really hard to fathom such a combination punch that misguided and evil people gave to our family. I had been close to my uncle as a child but when he moved to New York, we lost touch. However, as it is the case with most people, those who touch their lives as a child, even though communications might have dropped off, they still reside in an important part of that person’s heart. I had not known that my uncle was still a New York firefighter. However, when my mother called me, not more than two days after being told that my aunt had died, I was told that my uncle died as well. There are no words that could describe what I felt that week. I could not go to class, I barely ate and did not take any visitors at all for the rest of the year. If somebody told me that they I had their condolences and that they understood how I felt, I was so angry inside, that I had to restrain myself from simply punching them in the face. And I am not a violent person by any means. I have strong opinions but usually respect others and would much rather avoid an insulting argument than to engage in one. I just became a very angry and bitter person. † In perspective, I asked Natasha how she now viewed 9/11 and all of the ramifications that it has now had for the country. â€Å"I have considered myself a Democrat for most of my life. However, even though the war in Iraq has been mishandled on a dozen different fronts, I become so angry when I hear politicians from both political parties proclaim that we should simply leave Iraq and that terrorism is really not worth fighting. It seems to me that since America is a very disposable society, people have forgotten what happened on 9/11. I will never forget seeing people jumping 1000 feet to their deaths while the towers burned. When I hear reports of Glasgow, London, Bali and Madrid being victims of more terrorist attacks from a small portion of the Muslim community who have been steered the wrong way, I become very frustrated. Does one have to lose two members of their family in a terrorist attack to remember that America is a very dangerous place and that there are millions of people who would love to attack this country. I still am a Democrat and believe in the principles of the party. I just feel so frustrated, as does most Americans, about the level of unity and as a result, progress that is being achieved in this area. † Natasha spent most of the Fall of 2001, dealing with the deaths of her family members. â€Å" Since there were no remains that were found of both my aunt and uncle, I really didn’t know what to do. I still go to their grave sites but I know that their body is not there. In time, the body would slowly disappear but I wanted to have the same experience that anybody would want who receive some comfort in visiting the gravesite of their loved ones. At least, I wanted to experience that but have been unable to. However, I feel additionally cheated by the fact that the only place where I can visit my aunt and uncle is in my mind. † When asked, Natasha speaks about her life since 9/11. â€Å"I eventually graduated college and even though my plans to receive my Master’s Degree at New York University did not pan out, I still feel close to that city and always will. I went to Boston to work for the Democratic National Convention in the months leading up to the 2004 election. With a degree in political science, I always have been politically aware of my surroundings. I knew that I needed to expand my sphere of influence beyond college and felt that my effort in the DNC, although not successful, still did prove some good. I honored my aunt and uncle in that respect. † It was a trying but successful time for me as I actually got to meet President Clinton while dining at a restaurant in Boston. I walked up to both him and his wife Hillary and introduced myself beyond the Secret Service and Mr. Clinton actually said that he had heard that we were doing good work. Perhaps that was just lip service but it was a great honor for me nevertheless. †

Running head: SPORT VIOLENCE Essay

Violence is defined as â€Å"the use of excessive physical force, which causes or has obvious potential to cause harm or destruction.†(Mchill) Sport violence an issue or just part of the game? Where is the line drawn among players, fans, and media? With violence being so prominent in sports today the love of the game is being over shadowed by the need to win. Coaches, parents and players are being instructed to win at all cost, these tactics are then being glorified by the media and supported by the fans as good entertainment. The top three issues involving sport violence is media portrayal, fan identity, and youth sport violence. Media portrayal of sports violence is shown and read on every type of media outlet. Are the constant replays shown on ESPN of a player getting rocked in a game really necessary? Or how about the top ten worst hits? What type of message is this sending to young athletes? Media outlets are glamorizing athletes that are usually the aggressive and violent ones on a daily basis. Yes, athletes are being penalized for these violent actions but being replayed on ESPN 15 times a day really sending a message that violence is a part of the sport and promoting violence to solve problems? On the other side of the argument, exposure to sports violence by the media has stimulated efforts to control and prevent behavior by multiple fines and penalties. Also a high school athlete being scouted for a college sport can utilize the media to showcase the player and give an advantage to be recruited to the team. Spectator violence is present in every level of sport. From youth sport to professional sport, spectators lose control of their emotions and commit acts of violence against players, coaches, officials, and other fans. There are several factors that lead spectators to commit acts of violence: strong team identification, strong team loyalty, alcohol, and situational variables such as a team loss or fans of opposing teams sitting in close proximity and instigating each other. While the passion that spectators have for their team is a positive characteristic and it drives the success of the sport industry, the negative cost is that the passion can turn into criminal and deviant behavior which takes away from the enjoyment of the game and puts others at risk; endangering their right to enjoy watching a contest by having their safety jeopardized. However, all is not lost. There are policies and procedures that can be put in place to help curb spectator violence, but it takes a commitment from the top leaders of each individual sport organization to take a stand against such destructive behavior. Youth sport violence is a growing concern for all involved. A large part of child development comes from the involvement in youth sport. The problem is what they are being taught from overzealous coaches and parents who push for the win at all cost. The youth are learning to use unnecessary roughness and poor sportsmanship with little repercussions. The parents and coaches are the largest issue because they providing poor examples for the children. The ethical issue becomes whether it is ethical to included additional rules to youth leagues. The solution developed is for stricter rules or more serious repercussions for coaches, parents, and players. These rules are in hopes that they will bring youth sports back to a positive atmosphere it was once created for, without parents and coaches influencing youth poorly. Introduction Sport Violence in the 21st Century has become a major ethical issue. From the youth level to professional sports, fans, players, coaches, and media are guilty of contributing to this problem. Sport Violence is changing the way in which games are played, observed, and coached. Issues surrounding Sport Violence are not limited to the playing field but are spread throughout society. The major areas in which sport violence impact society are within the actual sport participants such as players and coaches; the media, and the spectators. One of the major issues is that sport violence is impacting the youth of America. The youth struggle to distinguish what they see on tv and what they are allowed to do themselves. They see violence and think that that kind of behavior is appropriate so they behave similarly during their games and may coaches do anything to stop it. In fact, many coaches encourage violence and poor behavior with a Win At All Cost mentality. Some people hold sport media accountable for the growing issue of sport violence because the media tends to glamorize and glorify violence in sports. When there is a violent hit or a fight in a game, the media will continually show the incident from several angles. While the announcers might be discouraging the poor behavior, the production continues to show it again and again instead of cutting to commentary or a commercial. Another example of how media spreads sport violence is the Top 10 lists of biggest hits, hardest knock outs, or most bruising pitches. The problem is that violence sells and the producers know it; which leads to another issue in sport violence: the spectators. Spectators love watching the violent hits and the hardest knockouts over and over. Just as a bad car wreck makes everyone stop and look, violence in sports catches people’s attention and invokes an emotional response. Therefore, the spectator’s response to the media is cyclical and they both drive each other. Additional concerns of spectators and sport violence is the emotional ties that individual’s feel to their team. This type of team identification can influence an individual to commit their own acts of violence if their team loses or if they feel threatened by a fan of another team. Spectator violence lives in youth sports, high school sports, collegiate sports, and professional sports. It’s negative influence is overreaching and permeating. Analysis and Discussion: Are parents and coaches encouraging kids to use excessive force in sports in order to win games? Where is the line between a good play and unnecessary roughness? Violence in sports is a topic of many sport enthusiasts and is an even large concern when it involves youth sports. The issue is discovering what is causing sport violence in the youth. There are a many outlets that help influence excessive force, media coverage of professional sports, parents and coaches with a win at all cost mentally. Is violence in youth sport a result of sport being to competitive? Youth sports were started to help develop children’s identity, physical skills, social skills, teamwork, and brain function. All the positive effects are true for youth sports if the focus is on developing children and not as much on the score of the game. While there is a place for competitive nature in youth sports it should not cause unnecessary roughness by the athletes. Arthur-Banning cited scholars saying â€Å"youth sport can be used to promote lifelong physical activity and enjoyment of sport, but only if programs are specifically designed with this intent.†(Smith & Smoll, 1997; Weiss & Petlichkoff, 1989)(p.4). A large problem lies in adults who cannot put aside their desire to win and therefore get out-of-control. This includes yelling at the umpires, fighting with other parents, yelling at players, etc. When children observe this behavior they believe it is acceptable to do the same. This behavior then fosters more poor behavior for example, blaming others for their actions and not taking responsibility. â€Å"The competitiveness permeating youth sports today often leads to exploding tempers, vile verbal assaults and sometimes fisticuffs, placing the child in the middle of the melee. Finding the balance between the positive and negative lessons that aggression teaches is the key, according to Tofler.†(Focus on Family, p. 4). It is parents and coaches job to groom well tempered athletes during their youth. In a study by Kerr explains four types of violence in sports which are important to be able to identify the difference between the in orders to determine the use of the violence. There is â€Å"play violence† which is just playful but is a concern when it escalates to â€Å"anger violence† which is serious anger that is unpleasant. The third is â€Å"Power violence with a serious purpose and tends to take the form of cold, calculated violence† this is an excepted form of violence in sports like boxing and karate but not football. In sports like football i t would be unnecessary roughness. The fourth type to be aware of is â€Å"thrill violence is usually provocative and spontaneous, providing pleasant high levels of felt arousal and felt negativism† (Kerr, 2009, p.45). If coaches and parents are aware of the type of violence the athlete is displaying they can take correct measures to prevent it from happening again. By having the adults support positive sportsmanship and punish or discourage poor sportsmanship it will teach the young athletes how to respond to different situations. The adults should focus on how to help their children control emotions during a game which will help the kids develop skills that can be used outside of sports, like conflict resolution. Ian Tofler, M.D. â€Å"says, for the most part, sports reflect society today. He asserts that the American way of life embraces assertiveness, aggression, but also resiliency. Learning such attributes from sports is essential in teaching moral and ethical development.†(Focus on the Family, p. 4) Sport can be a positive part of children’s youth if done correctly. Youth sport administrators should ensure there are guides to support positive experiences for children in sports. To fix violence in youth sports additional rules may need to be in place for coaches and parents. Would it be ethical to put rules in place to give parents or coaches technical fouls based on their negative out bursts? Would it be ethical to eliminate athletes from a league for excessive use of roughness? Is it ethical to continue to allow youth violence in sport to occur with little repercussions? The issue in question is whether it is ethical to make additional rules for youth sports to help prevent youth sport violence. These rules would be directed to parents, coaches, and athletes holding them more responsible for their actions. Cavanagh decision-making model will be used to decide the most ethical option. Using the Utilitarian theory is the first step of the model. â€Å"The greatest good for the greatest number† (Cavanagh, p. 141). Facts that support more rules are; helps kids develop problem solving skills, develop sportsmanship, children staying safe, children will understand right from wrong, parents and coaches will be punished for acting out, and the youth games will be focus on learning instead of just winning. The facts that go against more rules are; games are less competitive, could embarrass parents, coaches and parent do not give feedback positive or negative, and athlete fool around in the game. Overall the greatest good for the greatest number of people would be to instill additional rules. With additional rules it will teach children important life skills they can take with them in the future. For the parents and coaches they will begin to understand the game is for the kids to have fun and learn. Sports violence will go down because if things escalate out of control the parents, coaches, or athlete could be thrown out of the game or league. They all will understand that poor actions lead to repercussions and youth sports will be what it was designed for, education and fun. The second step to the theory is Rights, â€Å"They enable individuals to pursue their own interests and they impose correlative prohibitions and/or requirements on others.†(Cavanagh, p. 142).The rights that are for additional rules for youth sports are; life and safety, truthfulness, freedom of conscience, right of autonomy and Privacy? The players, coaches, and parents have the right not to have their life or safety endangered at a youth sport event because of violence. Truthfulness supports the rules because other players and coaches have the right to know the intentions behind a play. If the player was told to win the game at all cost the opposing team has the right to know the intention of foul play. Freedom of conscience supports the rules because if parents, coaches, or player’s choice not to adhere to the rules they will be asked to leave because they are violating the moral rules put in place. The right of autonomy side favors the rules because if the parents, coaches, or players do not like the added rules they can choice not to participate in the league. On the other hand the right of free speech, privacy, and autonomy go against the additional rules. Parents and coach have the right to criticize conscientiously as long as it does not violate others, giving them the right to yell at players, coaches and officials at a game. Parents and coaches have the right of privacy to conduct their parenting or coaching style however they see fit. In conclusion the right that weighs the heaviest on this issue is the right to life and safety. The additional rules will keep parents, coaches, officials, and most important children safe during games. The most important thing in youth sports is education and fun, which mean unnecessary roughness or the winning at any means necessary does not have a place in youth sports. The third ethical criteria for determining if additional rules should be put in place for youth sports, in order to limit youth sport violence is justice. â€Å"Justice requires all persons, and thus managers too, to be guided by fairness, equity, and impartiality.†(Cavanagh, p.144). The parts of justice that support the additional rules are fair administration, fair compensation, and fair treatment. The administration will uphold the â€Å"rules consistently, fairly and impartially.†(Cavanagh, p.143). Fair compensation supports the new rules because it holds individuals involved in the act of violence responsible for the injuries they have caused on the other individuals. Each parent, coach, and player deserve to be treated the same unless they decide to act in an out of control fashion. The cons against the new rule are fair blame and due process. Parents or coaches should not be â€Å"held responsible for matters over which they have no control†(Cavanagh, p.143). Parents or coaches might not necessary be responsible for the actions of their children during the game. Parents or coaches can make the argument that their rights are being violated by adding additional rules to youth leagues. Again the justice criterion leads to the addition of rules to youth leagues based on fair treatment. If an individual chooses to act out they are setting themselves apart from others and therefore, should be treated in such a way by given them repercussion for their negative actions. A fair solution to this ethical issue of violence in youth sports is to add additional rules to youth leagues. The leagues can start by having all players, parents, and coaches sign an agreement to conduct themselves in a fair and proper manor. In addition they will be made aware of penalties or repercussions if they do coach their kids to use unnecessary roughness or if they have out of control burst which will be determined by the officials. The penalty they receive will be based on remarks or actions taking by the individual. The officials will have the right to give out these penalties based on new league rules. The rules will make examples out of offenders to encourage others not to violate the rules. Lastly, before coaches are allow to coach a team they must attend a seminar or clinic that explains what is demeaned unnecessary roughness, out bursts, and other unfavorable actions. All parents will be invited to clinics and seminars but are not requiring attending unless one of the rules is violated. If one of the rules are violated it is mandatory for the people involved to attend with their child to the clinics or seminar. Violence in the media has been is a topic of great concern for many of years to parents, educators and even medial professions. There doesn’t seem to be many positive aspects to violent television shows or sporting events. There will always be the debate over why some people react with violence after watching violent media being played over and over on sports stations and some do not, but the fact remains that there are only a few good reasons to see so much violence in such detail. Mass media can be said to have a large contribution to the acceptability of sports and violence. The media plays a vital role in sports and how it’s portrayed. Through the media exposure, many people to sports-related violence are tuned into the television, magazines, newspapers, and radio, thus providing numerous examples to children and young adults who may imitate such behavior. Violence through the media can glamorizes players, often the most controversial and aggressive ones. On the other hand, the exposure given to sports violence by the media has stimulated increased efforts to control and prevent such behavior by multiple fines being set in place and many penalties. One of the most recent events that involved violence in sports and media exposure is the Detroit Pistons vs. Indiana Pacers brawl. A little recap of the incident was Pacers forward Ron Artest stretched himself out on the scorer’s table, where he was hit by a cup of beer thrown by a Detroit fan. Artest, followed by a number of other Pacers, charged into the crowd, throwing punches. The fight lasted about 10 minutes. Officials eventually called the game, and the Pacers were showered with beer, popcorn and debris as they left the court; a chair was thrown during the brawl and a number of people were treated for minor injuries. Not only was this fight showed on ESPN for weeks, it was shown on national news stations across the country and analyzed every aspect of it. The YouTube video of the fight received millions of hits and today is still showed as one of sport’s most violent brawls. In 1961-1973 a study was done by Ontario Royal Commission on Violence. On average 15 hours of â€Å"very aggressive† and â€Å"aggressive sports† were televised per week, and in 1973 the average raised to 21 hours per week. The most obvious and over played argument would be the negative result of violence in the media and how it promotes violence to solve problems. By watching detailed violence, it sends a message that violence is acceptable way to play sports or be â€Å"competitive†. Some examples of how the media relays violence in sports could be by the constant replays of massive hits, slow motion showing every impact including the player’s distressed face, and even zooming in on the player that was injured. Shouldn’t media outlets be portraying sports as skilled and professionalism? Instead televisions are full of â€Å" top ten painful plays† or â€Å" top ten hits† or â€Å" best fights of 2012†. What message is this sending to athletes of every age? Smith (1978) did a study on how much violent material do young athletes consume through media. The results were about 65% of youth athletes attend pro hockey games 2-3 times a year, 53% said they read about pro hockey on a daily basis and 80% watch it weekly. Consumption went up with age. Hockey can be thought to be one of the most violent sports next too football with the legal fist fights. Smith (1983) asked â€Å"Have you ever learned how to hit another player illegally from watching pro sports?† and 56% of the 604 participants said yes. With a little over half of the people watching sports learned how to illegally hit another player during a game is intense. This could possibly mean the outlet of television or media is the reason why violence in sports in on a rise. It was reported by Sports Business Journal that in 1987-1988 the NBA had more fist fights than Professional Boxer Mike Tyson. Finding many pro sides for violence in sports through the media was a little more challenging. Receiving a college scholarship is almost impossible these days. Without the help of the media portraying them as the best of the best it would be a lot harder for schools across the country to recognize or even notice potential athletes. A defensive player in football gets his position by being aggressive and making important tackles, even if it’s a violent play. Recording these plays or writing about them gives an advantage to the athlete trying to get into college. Also, media coverage can greatly enhance the chances of violent offenders being caught. There have been several examples of players, who were not reported by officials during a match, being cited by sporting bodies, clubs or tribunals after the event. Media footage has also helped track down perpetrators of violent acts off the field. Known by many, some sports are violent by nature. Boxing is the obvious example, where physical attack is the point of the exercise. There has been much debate over the sport and the media coverage for such violence this form of â€Å"violence† is within the rules of the sport and the possibility of injury is well known by participants and by viewers so by showing coverage of these types of sports are accepted and are not merely portraying violence as acceptable outside of the sport. The question related to media and violence is whether showing violence in sports through the media outlets ethical? Cavanaugh decision-making model will be used to decide the most ethical options. Utilitarian theory is â€Å"The greatest good for the greatest number† (Cavanagh, p. 141). Actions are evaluated by judging their consequences and weighing the good effects and bad effects and the attempt is to achieve an optimal balance of benefits versus harms on those affected by the action. Facts that support media coverage of violence is that viewers like to watch action in sports, violence is a part of the game, intensifies the game and may help high school athletes get noticed for college. The facts that go against media coverage of violence are; too graphic, no need to show people getting hurt, violence and competition are two different things violence only degrades the sport or player. Overall the greatest good for the greatest number of people would be to allow the media to cover violence in sports. Now days people watch sports through the television or watch highlights through media such as ESPN. Some people only want to see the important plays of the game. Let’s face it, the more intense sports are the more people will watch them, even if it’s a nasty hit, or brawl in a basketball game. Rights theory is the next step. The rights for media coverage of sports violence are; truthfulness and right of free speech. Truthfulness supports this theory because the media have the right to be truthful in what they show and not alter the media or certain outbreaks. Censorship is allowed but if a major fight breaks out is it ethical or unethical to show it? Do the people have a right to see what happened? Under the right of free speech commentators and sports broadcasting channels have the right to criticize others as long as it doesn’t violate the rights of others. If it happened in the game why wouldn’t the media be allowed to play it and talk about it? The last theory is justice. The theory of justice requires decision makers to be guided by equity, fairness, and impartiality (Cavanagh et al., 1981). It relies on three types of moral prescriptions: (1) that individuals who are similar in a relevant respect should be treated similarly and individuals who are different in a relevant respect should be treated differently in proportion to the difference between them; (2) that rules should be administrated fairly and clearly; and (3) that individuals should not be held responsible for matters over which they have no control, and should be compensated for the cost of their injuries by those responsible for these injuries (Cavanaugh et al., 1981). Decision making and reasoning based on the theory of justice focus on the distributional effect of actions (Cavanagh et al., 1981). Under these criteria’s I believe it is ethical to show violence in sports throughout media. Though violence throught the miedia will never go away some of the alternatives I came up with were to limit the number of times a aggressive play is shown on TV and have a warning for younger kids that what is about to be shown is graphic so parents can decide whether its appropriate to show the violent acts. Over the past several decades, sport violence has become an ever-increasing topic in North America. The topic of violence usually revolves around athletes, teams, and the organizations themselves. For instance, Ron Artest, also ridiculously known as Meta World Peace thanks to his name change, is more widely known for his violence than he is for his basketball skills; most recently for his violent swing of the elbow to the head of James Hardin during the last week of the 2012 NBA regular season. The New Orleans Saints’ publicity has shifted over the past year from the America-loved Hurricane Katrina World Champions to the America-despised Bounty Hunter team who offered inside bonuses to those defenders that had the biggest and most damaging hits to the opposing team. And finally, just about since its inception, the entire Oakland Raider football organization has been labeled as poor sports, violent, and unethical due to the organizations predisposition for everything that goes against ethical behavior. Traditionally, much of the attention has focused on the ones in the big spotlight, and only a small amount of attention has focused on the ones in the background, the ones who passionately follow and support the athletes, teams, and organizations: the spectators. No doubt, spectators make the sport world go round. With the Sport Business Journal’s estimate of $194.64 billion spent in the year 2001, if it wasn’t for the spectators, the sport industry would not be as successful (Chelladurai, 2009, p. 10). The shear economic impact of sport within our society is extremely important in driving the American economy, and with the thrilling permeation of sport within American society, spectators have the ability to make or break the sport. American’s love their teams. The passion and excitement that the success of teams creates within the spectator is unparalleled to anything else. The biggest sport stadiums in our country, The Big House at the University of Michigan for example, bring out over 100,000 spectators for each event. Nothing else in our society encourages this kind of commitment and participation over an extended period of time. The biggest concerts can bring close to that many people, but the concert only lasts for one day in one location and then the show moves onto a different city or state. Certain protests, parades, or political events can draw crowds over 100,000 but once again, the actual event is usually only one or two days and the difference between these events and sports/concerts is that these events do not cost anything to attend. For spectators to commit their support over entire seasons, year in and year out, requires an ongoing investment in mental, emotional, financial, and cognitive resources. This kind of relationship between spectator and team is remarkable. Few events in our society can compete with the extreme emotional highs that sports can invoke within ones soul. However, with the emotional highs come emotional lows. For the majority of time, sports have a very positive impact on society, but at other times sport has the ability to influence spectators to commit unlawful and undesirable acts of violence and aggression. It is during these times when sport has a negative role in our society. To begin the discussion about spectators it is important to have a fundamental definition. Nicholson and Hoye (2005) define spectators as â€Å"supporters and parents†¦Ã¢â‚¬Ëœbench’ players, coaches, team, club or league officials, venue staff and general public within the view of the field of play† (p. 95). All of these individuals play an important role when it comes to making sport a positive experience or a negative experience. The role that media, players, and coaches play in sport violence has already been discussed. The remains of this discussion will be focused on the individuals outside those two areas; specifically the spectators known as the fans. There is the obvious physical violence that spectators can invoke on each other, the officials, the players, and the coaches. For the purpose of this discussion, poor behavior not resulting in physical violence is going to be included with the overarching topic of â€Å"violence.† Nicholson and Hoye (2005) define poor behavior as â€Å"Foul language, abuse of officials, racial and ethnic abuse, sexual harassment, throwing missiles, drunkenness, pitch invasion, and acts of violence† (p. 98). These undesirable acts can be directed towards fellow spectators, players, coaches, and unfortunately officials. In fact, Nicholson and Hoye (2005, p. 100) found that the perception of performance of game officials was one of the key catalysts for poor behavior. Apparently, when things aren’t going the way of their desired team, spectators look to release their frustrations on something or someone and contest officials are the easiest target. Further, spectator violence is not limited to the times between the first and last whistles. Spectator violence takes place before games, during games, and after games and the violence can take place just about anywhere. It can take place at sports bars and pubs that aren’t located anywhere near the venue, or it can happen on the streets that surround the venue either before the game or after the game. Spectator violence can break out in the parking lots of the venue during pre-game tailgate parties or post-game events and it can also happen at the venue entrance/exit points, in the mausoleum, in the stands or even spread to the playing surface. With such a propensity for spectators to commit acts of violence and criminal behavior, venue and event managers are concerned with how to stop it or at the very least control and minimize it. However, understanding the cause should come before finding the solution. First off, let’s not confuse passion with violence. One of the greatest draws of sport competition in our society is the camaraderie created between players, teams, organizations, and fans. The passion and excitement created by this bond is what keeps people coming back day in day out, week in week out, and season after season. This bond is known as team identification and studies have shown it’s one of the strongest predictors of spectator violence. It’s easy to point out the obvious individuals that are high in team identification. For example, Barrel Man is a historic figure in the history of the Denver Broncos and the Mile High Stadium. Certain high schools have spirit squads that are front and center at every game and they have specific names like â€Å"Kadet Krazies† for the Air Academy High School Kadets and the â€Å"Rowdy Rams† for the Rampart High School Rams; both in Colorado Springs, CO. However, team identification is not always as visibly obvious as the aforementioned examples. Many fans feel a strong sense of internal and emotional relationship with their team. Either way, team identification is a strong variable in determining spectator violence. Wann, Carlson, and Schrader (1999) classified spectator aggression into two categories: hostile or instrumental. Hostile spectator violence involves violent actions that are motivated by anger with the goal of harming another person. Instrumental spectator violence refers to actions intended to harm another person with the goal of achieving a result other than the victim’s suffering (p. 279). This kind of violence is highest amongst individuals high in team identification and that experience a situation that is unfavorable to their personal desires; such as a team loss. These two elements can combine to make an explosive situation at sporting contests. Consider additional variables such as alcohol, age of spectators, level of game importance (playoff game), and nature of the sport (football as opposed to volleyball) and the potential for spectator violence only increases. No matter why or how spectator violence happens, the ones involved are almost always perceived as hooligans, hoodlums, or deviants and whenever violence does break out it always puts a blemish on the image of the particular sport or team. As mentioned in the beginning of this section, individuals or organizations involved in violence are seen as unethical and looked upon negatively in our society. Spectators are just as vulnerable to the negative perceptions and are also seen as unethical individuals that detract from the spirit of the game. In effort to determine the level that spectator violence is unethical, this issue should be processed through the Cavanagh Model of Ethical Decision Making. Three criteria are considered when making this determination: Utility, Rights, and Justice. The fundamental principle of utility is that whatever makes the greatest good for the greatest number of people is the ethical decision, act, or policy. If spectator violence were to occur at every sporting event across the globe than one could say that it negatively impacts the majority of people and it is therefore unethical. However, when comparing the total number of sport games that take place in the world to the total number of times that spectator violence occurs, the number of incidents of spectator violence is relatively small. Therefore, based on the utility criterion, spectator violence is considered to be ethical. The notion of rights is the next criterion to consider in making the determination of spectator violence being ethical or unethical. Spectators have a right to enjoy a sporting contest without their life or safety being threatened. On the same topic, Nicholson and Hoye (2005) explained the notion of spectator violence breaking individual rights as this: â€Å"Poor spectator behavior can impinge on the ability of people involved in sport to enjoy a safe physical, social, and cultural sport environment† (p. 95). In making a determination of spectator violence being ethical or unethical based on the rights criterion, one must conclude that spectator violence is unethical due to the fact that it violates individual’s rights to enjoy a sporting contest without their lives and safety being threatened. The final criterion to consider in determining spectator violence being ethical or unethical is justice. â€Å"Justice requires all persons, and thus managers too, to be guided by fairness, equity, and impartiality. Justice calls for evenhanded treatment of groups and individuals (1) in the distribution of the benefits and burdens of society, (2) in the administration of laws and regulations, and (3) in the imposition of sanctions and means of compensation for wrongs a person has suffered† (Cavanagh, 1984. p. 144). There are several justices to consider in this case: fair administration of rules, fair compensation, and due process. In regards to fair administration of rules, everyone spectator is held to the same high standard of appropriate behavior. No spectator gets a special rule allowing them to act inappropriately. Therefore, fair administration of rules cannot be counted as injustice when looking at spectator violence. Now, in the event that spectator violence occurs, there are often innocent bystanders affected by the violence. Sometimes they are just emotionally scarred or threatened and other times they are physically harmed. In the case of physical harm incurred by innocent bystanders, these individuals expect that they receive fair compensation for their injuries and that the violent aggressors be held accountable for their actions. However, in the case that the perpetrator is not held responsible for their act of violence and the victim does not receive fair compensation for their injuries, justice is not being served. It can be assumed that the majority of time that a violent mob breaks out and an innocent bystander gets injured, that the individual responsible for that injury will not be detained or held responsible. Only in the time there was physical evidence convicting the violent spectator will the victim receive fair compensation. More often than not, injured bystanders are taken to the emergency room for treatment of their injuries and the perpetrator is not held responsible. This situation blends into the idea of due process, where an individual has a right to a fair and impartial hearing when he or she believes that personal rights are being violated. As explained previously, spectator violence impinges on individual’s rights to enjoy a sporting event in a safe environment without their life or safety being threatened. In the case that this right is violated and someone’s life or safety has been threatened to the point of injury or harm but they are not able to bring suit on an individual or organization due to the nature of the event that occurred, then there is a strict violation of due process. To answer the question of spectator violence being unethical or unethical based on the criterion of justice, the conclusion is that spectator violence is unethical. Spectator Violence is determined to be unethical yet unstoppable, but what policies or procedures can organizations put in place that help control or minimize the violent behavior? Nicholson and Hoye (2005) discuss strategies used to manage poor behavior and their identified strategies fall under 3 categories: Preventative, which are strategies designed to educate spectators and develop a better culture; Immediate, which are strategies to deal with poor spectator behavior as they occur; and Post-Incident, which are strategies designed to punish or prosecute poor behavior after an incident (102). Preventative strategies include providing safe and secure entrance/exit points for players, coaches, officials, and spectators; providing and displaying code of conduct packets for spectators; additional education for officials on how to best handle volatile situations; strategically place bars or â€Å"wet† areas to minimize alcohol induced violence; limit alcohol consumption; development and implementation of national rules and expectations; and provide a more than sufficient number of event staff and security. Immediate strategies include removing the spectator/s from the event, cancelling the event, and the use of a Yellow/Red card system where a yellow card is a warning and a red card is a removal from the event. Post-incident measures include removing players that have a tendency to invoke violence amongst spectators, suspending players, and banning the entrance of spectators who are consistently detrimental to the game experience. There is not a one size fits all solution to curbing spectator violence. For instance, the Denver Broncos are not able to keep an individual from returning to future games. They may be able to prevent that individual from purchasing a ticket but that’s easy to circumvent if that spectator has a friend buy tickets for them. The individuals working the ticket gate are not equipped to check every person’s id so they cannot prevent the perpetrator from entering the venue unless they have specific knowledge that the perpetrator is trying to enter at a specific gate. Instead, venue and organization management should put as many of these strategies in place in order to minimize spectator violence and provide a positive safe environment for all to enjoy. Conclusion: The major points in this analysis report are the ethical dilemmas with violence in youth sports, violence through the media and spectator violence. Ways to help maintain and prevent violence in youth sports are making sure the there are signed agreement for players, coaches, parents, administering additional penalties or repercussions for unnecessary roughness or out of control and finally running clinics and seminars on the preventative measures on violence in the specific sport being played. Violence through the media can be monitored by limiting the number of replays of a violent hit or fights and seeing out warnings to young children warning them about the viscous hits, attacks, fights etc. Finally preventative measures for spectators will include providing safe and secure entrance/exit points for officials, players, and coaches, having the Code of Conduct packet for players and spectators, educating the officials and event staff for handling violent behavior, strategically placed â€Å"wet† areas, signage reminding spectators what they represent, development and implementation of national rules and limiting alcohol and # of spectators. Immediate measures for audience violence would include removal the violent spectator from the event, removal of players from the contest, cancelling the event before it gets out of hand, having a red and yellow card system and having police presence. Post incident measures need to include suspensions of players, blacklisting spectators and administering fine and jail time for appropriate circumstances. References Arthur-Banning, S. (2009). Parents Behaving Badly? The Relationship between the Sportsmanship Behaviors of Adults and Athletes in Youth Basketball Games. Journal Of Sport Behavior, 32(1), 3. HYPERLINK â€Å"http://0-search.ebscohost.com.source.unco.edu/login.aspx?direct=true&db=f5h&AN=36561074&site=ehost-live† http://0-search.ebscohost.com.source.unco.edu/login.aspx?direct=true&db=f5h&AN=36561074&site=ehost-live Bigelow, B., Moroney, T., & Hall, L. (2001). Just let the kids play. Deerfield Beac,Fl: Health Communications Inc. Coakley, J. (2011). Youth sports: What counts as â€Å"positive development?†. Journal of Sport and Social Issues, 3(35), 306-324. doi: 10.1177/0193723511417311 Conroy, D. E., Silva, J. M., Newcomer, R. R., Walker, B. W., & Johnson, M. S. (2001). Personal and participatory socializers of the perceived legitimacy of aggressive behavior in sport. Aggressive Behavior, 27(6), 405-418. HYPERLINK â€Å"http://0-web.ebscohost.com.source.unco.edu/ehost/detail?sid=9712135c-cca9-4dc5-94f0-dd1e1b0d17† http://0-web.ebscohost.com.source.unco.edu/ehost/detail?sid=9712135c-cca9-4dc5-94f0-dd1e1b0d17 %40sessionmgr4&vid=1&hid=11&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWhvc3QtbGl2ZQ%3d%3d#db=sph&AN=SPHS-800129 Focus on Family: Not just a game: parental rage marring youth sports. (2002). Providence, RI, USA: Manisses Communications Group. Ginsburg, R. D., Durant, S., & Baltzell, A. (2006). Whose game is it, anyway?. New York, NY: Houghton Mifflin Company. Hoch, D. (2008). Combating increased violence at games. Coach Athletic Director, 77, 12-13. Kerr, J. H. (2009). Analysis of recent incidents of on-field violence in sport: legal decisions and additional considerations from psychology. Aggressive Behavior, 35(1), 41-48. doi:10.1002/ab.20284 Lanter, J.R. (no year). Spectator identification with the team and participation in celebratory violence. Journal of Sport Behavior, 34, 268-280. Livings, B. (2006). ‘Legitimate Sport’ or Criminal Assault? What Are the Roles of the Rules and the Rulemakers in Determining Criminal Liability for Violence on the Sports Field?. Journal Of Criminal Law, 70(6), 495-508. HYPERLINK â€Å"http://0-search.ebscohost.com.source.unco.edu/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=23244981&site=ehost-live† http://0-search.ebscohost.com.source.unco.edu/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=23244981&site=ehost-live Linville, D. C., & Huebner, A. J. (2005). The analysis of extracurricular activities and thier relationship to youth violence. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 34(5), 483-492. doi:10.1007/s10964-005-7265-9 Mattila, V., Parkkari, J., Lintonen, T., Kannus, P., & Rimpelà ¤, A. (2005). Occurrence of violence and violence†related injuries among 12–18 year†old Finns. S candinavian Journal Of Public Health, 33(4), 307-313. doi:10.1080/14034940510005851 Nicholson, M., Hoye, R. (2005). Contextual factors associated with poor sport spectator behaviour. Managing Leisure, 10, 94-105. Roberts, J.V., Benjamin, C.J. (2000). Spectator violence in sports: A north american perspective. European Journal on Criminal Policy and Research, 8, 163-181. Smith, Michael D. Mass media treatment of violence in sports and its effects. Current Psychology: A Journal for Diverse Perspectives on Diverse Psychological Issues, Vol 7(4), 1988-1989-1989, 298-311. doi: 10.1007/BF02686627 Violence. In Merriam-Webster.com. Retrieved July 4, 2012, from

Free Essays on Mexico

Mexico Country Profile Country Formal Name: United Mexican States (Estados Unidos Mexicans). Short Form: Mexico. Term for Citizen(s): Mexican(s). Capital: Mexico City (called Mà ©Ãƒ ©xico or Ciudad de Mà ©Ãƒ ©xico in country). Date of Independence: September 16, 1810 (from Spain). National Holidays: May 5, commemorating the victory over the French at the Battle of Puebla; September 16, Independence Day. Mexico Geography Size: 1,972,550 square kilometersthird largest nation in Latin America (after Brazil and Argentina). Topography: Various massive mountain ranges including Sierra Madre Occidental in west, Sierra Madre Oriental in east, Cordillera Neovolcnica in center, and Sierra Madre del Sur in south; lowlands largely along coasts and in Yucatan Peninsula. Interior of country high plateau. Frequent seismic activity. Drainage: Few navigable rivers. Most rivers short and run from mountain ranges to coast. Climate: Great variations owing to considerable north-south extension and variations in altitude. Most of the country has two seasons: wet (June-September) and dry (October-April). Generally low rainfall in interior and north. Abundant rainfall along east coast, in south, and in Yucatan Peninsula. Society Population: Estimated population of 94.8 million persons in mid-1996. Annual rate of growth 1.96 percent. Language: Spanish official language, spoken by nearly all. About 8 percent of population speaks an indigenous language; most of these people speak Spanish as second language. Knowledge of English increasing rapidly, especially among business people, the middle class, returned emigrants, and the young. Ethnic Groups: Predominantly mestizo society (60 percent); 30 percent indigenous; 9 percent European; 1 percent other. Education and Literacy: Secretariat of Public Education has overall responsibility for all levels of education system. Compulsory education to age sixteen; public education ... Free Essays on Mexico Free Essays on Mexico Mexico Country Profile Country Formal Name: United Mexican States (Estados Unidos Mexicans). Short Form: Mexico. Term for Citizen(s): Mexican(s). Capital: Mexico City (called Mà ©Ãƒ ©xico or Ciudad de Mà ©Ãƒ ©xico in country). Date of Independence: September 16, 1810 (from Spain). National Holidays: May 5, commemorating the victory over the French at the Battle of Puebla; September 16, Independence Day. Mexico Geography Size: 1,972,550 square kilometersthird largest nation in Latin America (after Brazil and Argentina). Topography: Various massive mountain ranges including Sierra Madre Occidental in west, Sierra Madre Oriental in east, Cordillera Neovolcnica in center, and Sierra Madre del Sur in south; lowlands largely along coasts and in Yucatan Peninsula. Interior of country high plateau. Frequent seismic activity. Drainage: Few navigable rivers. Most rivers short and run from mountain ranges to coast. Climate: Great variations owing to considerable north-south extension and variations in altitude. Most of the country has two seasons: wet (June-September) and dry (October-April). Generally low rainfall in interior and north. Abundant rainfall along east coast, in south, and in Yucatan Peninsula. Society Population: Estimated population of 94.8 million persons in mid-1996. Annual rate of growth 1.96 percent. Language: Spanish official language, spoken by nearly all. About 8 percent of population speaks an indigenous language; most of these people speak Spanish as second language. Knowledge of English increasing rapidly, especially among business people, the middle class, returned emigrants, and the young. Ethnic Groups: Predominantly mestizo society (60 percent); 30 percent indigenous; 9 percent European; 1 percent other. Education and Literacy: Secretariat of Public Education has overall responsibility for all levels of education system. Compulsory education to age sixteen; public education ... Free Essays on Mexico Mexican Economy I. Historical, Population, Culture, Political, and Economic Information History Mexico was the site of some of the earliest and most advanced civilizations in the western hemisphere. The Mayan culture, according to archaeological research, attained its greatest development about the 6th century AD. Another group, the Toltec, established an empire in the Valley of Mexico and developed a great civilization still evidenced by the ruins of magnificent buildings and monuments. The leading tribe, the Aztec, built great cities and developed an intricate social, political, and religious organization. Their civilization was highly developed, both intellectually and artistically. The first European explorer to visit Mexican territory was Francisco Fernndez de Cà ³rdoba, who in 1517 discovered traces of the Maya in Yucatn. In 1535, some years after the fall of the Aztec capital, the basic form of colonial government in Mexico was instituted with the appointment of the first Spanish viceroy, Antonio de Mendoza. A distinguishing characteristic of colonial Mexico was the exp loitation of the Native Americans. Although thousands of them were killed during the Spanish conquest, they continued to be the great majority of inhabitants of what was referred to as New Spain, speaking their own languages and retaining much of their native culture. Inevitably they became the laboring class. Their plight was the result of the 'encomienda' system, by which Spanish nobles, priests, and soldiers were granted not only large tracts of land but also jurisdiction over all Native American residents. A second characteristic of colonial Mexico was the position and power of the Roman Catholic church. Franciscan, Augustinian, Dominican, and Jesuit missionaries entered the country with the conquistadores. The Mexican church became enormously wealthy through gifts and bequests that could be held in perpetuity. Before 1859, when church holdings were n... Free Essays on Mexico Mexico is an interesting place to visit. There’s so many things to do and places to see it’s unbelievable. Mexico is made up of 24 states which are Baja California Norte, Baja California Sur, Sonora, Chihuahua, Coahuila, Nuevo Leon, Durango, Sinaloa, Zacatecas, Tamaulipas, San Luis Potosi, Jalisco, Guanajuato, Mexico City, Colima, Michoacan, Veracruz, Guerrero, Oaxaca, Tabasco, Chipas, Cameche, Quintana Roo, and Yucatan. The weather is not always great in Mexico. It’s either going to be extremely hot or extremely cold. May thru October seem to be the hot spots. The temperature can go up to 110 degrees. It gets to that point from June to August. May, September, and October it gets to 99-100 degrees. December to April it can get extremely cold. December and January are the coldest months. A lot of people fear these months because they have no heaters or boilers to keep them warm. People who don’t have boilers must heat their water in a bucket on the stove to get hot water. They have no fireplace to keep them warm either. During the summer they just settle taking showers with cold water which isn’t to bad considering the heat. The weather varies a lot as far as rain. It’s kind of like Houston. One day it’s sunshine and the next day it’s stormy and raining hard. It’s unpredictable, but you will know when it is summer and when it is winter. Education in Mexico is extremely strict. No one takes advantage. What I mean by that is that it being a poor country everyone wants to come on top. Of course everyone wants to do something with himself or herself, but Mexican parents are strict towards their children's education. Their education is more advanced than ours. What we learn our freshmen year they have learned it in eight grade. You recite the pledge of Allegiance every Monday. Everyone must stand up and honor their country. If you slack off you get suspended which looks extremely bad on your transcript. T here’s no air cond... Free Essays on Mexico A. Introduction Mexico is an often-overlooked country. It seems as if nothing important happens there that’s big enough for the media to cover. But when you look at Mexico today in an in-depth way, you find a very fascinating people and country. B. Population The Mexican population is divided into three main groups, the people of European descent, the Native Americans, and the people mixed with European and Native American descent or better known as Mestizos. Of these groups, the Mestizos are by far the Largest, making up about 60% of the people of Mexico. The Native Americans are the next largest with 30% and the Europeans the smallest with only 10%. The society is semi-industrial. The population of Mexico in the 1995 census was 93,670,000 giving the country an estimated person for about every 4 square miles. About 75% of people live in urban areas. Mexico consists of 32 administrative divisions, 31 states and the Federal District. The capital and cultural center of Mexico is Mexico City, with a population of 8,236,960 in 1990. Other important cities are Gaudalajara, population 1,628,617, Netzahaulcoyotl, population 1,256,115, Monterrey, population 1,064,197, Puebla, population 1,054,921, Leon, population 758,279, Cuidad Jaurez, population 798,499, and Tijuana. C. Climate Mexico is bisected by the tropic of Cancer; therefore, the Southern half is included in the Torrid Zone. In general, climate varies with elevation. The Tierra Caliante (hot land) includes the low coastal plains, extending from sea level to about 3000ft. Weather is extremely humid, with temperatures varying from 60-120 degrees. The Tierra Templata (temperature land) extends from about 3000-6000 ft. with average temperatures of 62-70 degrees. The Tierra Friar (cold land) extends from 6000-9000 ft. with average temperatures of 53-65 degrees. Mexico is a wonderful place....

Captain vs. Master

Captain vs. Master Captain vs. Master Captain vs. Master By Mark Nichol What’s the difference between a ship’s captain and a ship’s master? In contemporary usage, not much, but historically, the titles represented quite distinct roles. Captain is more common in modern usage, but master is more historically accurate. Captain derives ultimately from the Latin term caput, meaning â€Å"head† and related to other words beginning with cap- such as capital; capitaneus, meaning â€Å"chief,† and the French word capitaine, meaning â€Å"leader,† are the intermediate forms. Master, originating in the Latin word magis, meaning â€Å"more,† stems from magister, which also means â€Å"chief† as well as â€Å"director† or teacher.† In the Middle Ages, the man in charge of a ship, often but not always the owner, was called the master; this usage stems from imperial Rome. On the high seas, where delay or dissension could lead to destruction and death, the master had absolute authority, hence the title. However, before the advent of standing navies, civilian ships were often offered or impressed for use in transporting soldiers and their supplies from one place to another. When the captain of a company of soldiers brought the troops aboard for transport, he assumed military command of the ship, determining its destination and, if the ship engaged in hostilities at sea, directing the battle. In matters of sailing and maneuvering, though, the captain deferred to the master, who of course remained on board. (Before captain became a specific military rank, it designated a leader of roughly up to several hundred soldiers assembled for a specific battle or campaign. Much later, it became an official designation for a standing military unit of a circumscribed similar size.) As civilian ships were given long-term military roles, this division of responsibilities remained in effect: A captain had overall authority, but the master was responsibility for sailing operations. When permanent navies were established, roughly coincident with the establishment of standing armies, captain became a precise military rank in both settings. Master was also codified as the label for a specific posting; the master (sometimes called the sailing master) oversaw navigation and provisioning of the ship under direction of the captain, who by this time was a skilled mariner as well as a military leader. Naval captains and those commanding land-based units were and are not equivalent in rank: The largest ships in the Age of Sail eventually carried a thousand or more crew members, and ships often operated independently, requiring the captain to exercise great responsibility (and life-or-death authority), whereas an army captain commanded no more than a couple hundred men and was part of a more restrictive chain of command. Therefore, to this day, a navy captain holds a fairly high status in the naval hierarchy, whereas an army captain (or an officer with the equivalent rank in an air force or in the marines) has a comparatively minor role, though he or she must still demonstrate leadership skills. Even in the Middle Ages, a captain designated one or more lieutenants to assist him with command, to lead the company if he was absent or incapacitated, or to temporarily take responsibility for part of the unit. (The word lieutenant comes from the French phrase lieu tenant, meaning â€Å"deputy,† from words meaning â€Å"place† and â€Å"holder.†) Later, a ship was assigned one or more lieutenants depending on the size of the vessel. Meanwhile, master also briefly became a naval military rank below the rank of lieutenant, rather than a position, but it was phased out as naval vessels were increasingly powered by steam rather than sail. Other words that apply to naval command include commander, from an Old French word meaning â€Å"one who commands.† (The rank was originally styled â€Å"master and commander† to denote the commanding officer of a small vessel who doubled as the master, hence the Patrick O’Brian novel of that title and the related film starring Russell Crowe.) Commodore, the Dutch word derived from this term, came to apply to a captain given temporary command of a group of vessels and later became a specific rank above that of captain. (The similar term commandant is not a rank; it applies to an officer of any rank who commands a training facility or a prison.) Admiral, meanwhile, referring to a high-ranking naval officer in command of an entire navy or a fleet or major unit within one or the other, is from the Arabic word amir, meaning â€Å"military commander† (the source of emir, a modern word for an Arab leader) and, like captain, originally pertained to a land-based leader before it was applied to one who leads naval operations. On many modern civilian ships, the person in charge is officially referred to as the captain, whether or not there is a command hierarchy more or less based on naval tradition, though master is also common. In popular usage, however, captain came to prevail over master, so that, even now, the owner of a small pleasure craft will be referred to as â€Å"Captain† or â€Å"Skipper†; the latter word is derived from the Dutch word scipper, meaning â€Å"operator of a ship.† Skipper is also used formally to refer to the master of a small vessel such as a tugboat. Captain is used in other civilian command hierarchies, as in police and fire departments and the like, as well as to refer to the acknowledged leading athlete on a sports team, but master has not been adopted in such contexts from nautical usage. Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Misused Words category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:Masters Degree or Master's Degree?"Latter," not "Ladder"The Difference Between "Phonics" and "Phonetics"

Investment in emerging market or the effects of foreign direct Dissertation

Investment in emerging market or the effects of foreign direct investment(FDI) in emerging market - Dissertation Example Hence, the impact of FDI can be ascertained through reports and academic articles. FDI alone does not mean success and it depends on various other factors. With a view to evaluate the impact that the MNCs make by entering developing economies, this study was conducted. This study is based purely on secondary data through reliable sources. After reviewing literature on the theories and perspectives on FDI and on emerging economies, two MNCs that have invested in two different economies – China and India - were studied. Yamaha of Japan invested in India as a market expansion strategy and achieved initial success. Their investment and control was limited and as competition increased, they could not sustain. They still have two plants in India but they are yet to achieve success. Cultural distance seems to be the dominant factor in the outcome. In the case of China, General Motors of the US adopted a unique strategy by entering through investments in research and development at th e behest of the local government. Gradually they could enter into manufacturing and today they sell more trucks in China than they do in the US. GM adopted a vertical approach to FDI in China because of the huge difference in the factor endowments. Thus, the success or failure of the MNCs in developing economies requires taking into account the risk factors and knowing how to mitigate these risks. Prior experience is not enough. Table of Contents 1. Introduction 1.1 Background 1 1.2 Problem statement 2 1.3 Organization of the study 3 2. Literature Review 4 2.1 Definition and concept of FDI 4 2.2 Drivers of FDI 5 2.3 Emerging economies 7 2.4 FDI in emerging economies 9 3. Research Methodology 10 3.1 Research Philosophy 10 3.2 Research phenomenon 10 3.3 Research design 10 3.4 Research strategy 11 3.5 Justification for literature review 12 4. Findings and Discussion 14 4.1 India 14 4.2 China 17 5. Conclusion & recommendations 22 5.1 Conclusion 22 5.2 Recommendations 23 References 25 Ap pendices 27 1. Introduction 1.1 Background The developing economies comprising of low-income economies (with an annual gross national income per capita of $905 or less) and lower-middle income economies (income per capita between $906 and $3,595) jointly produce 41% of the world’s output, according to the World Bank Development Indicators 2008 report (Lenartowicz & Balasubramanian, 2009). Moreover, 5 of the 12 largest economies are now in the developing world. China and India’s economies are not expected to grow 22 times their current size by 2050 whereas the US is expected to grow only 2.5 times approximately. The developing countries constitute more than 80% of the world’s population. The geographical focus of growth has shifted towards the developing economies, which is the reason that the multinationals have been trying to develop economies in Asia, Africa and South America as profit sources. While the MNCs from the developed nations were seeking suitable ci rcumstances for foreign market access, the developing nations also strived to draw the attention of the foreign investors by offering incentives (Michi, Cagatay & Koska, 2004). This led to a serious competition to access the developing nations’ markets and the evaluation was based on costs, internal market and ownership/location advantages. The developing nati